Social Mobility: Definition, Example, and FAQs

What Is Social Mobility?

Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals, families, or groups within or between social strata in a society. This concept, part of broader socioeconomics, describes changes in an individual's financial standing, social status, or occupational prestige over time. The movement can be upward, signifying an improvement in status, or downward, indicating a decline. Social mobility is a critical measure of a society's openness and the extent to which individuals can improve their circumstances, often influenced by factors such as education, income, wealth, and public policy.

History and Origin

The concept of social mobility has been observed and discussed throughout history, but it was formally theorized in the early 20th century. Russian-born American sociologist Pitirim Sorokin is widely credited with introducing the concept in his 1927 book, "Social and Cultural Mobility."³², ³³, ³⁴, ³⁵ Sorokin proposed that no society is entirely open or closed, and the degree and speed of social mobility can vary significantly across different periods and cultures.³¹ His work laid the groundwork for modern sociological and economic studies of how individuals move within the social hierarchy.²⁹, ³⁰

Key Takeaways

• Social mobility describes the movement of individuals or groups between different socioeconomic positions.
• It can be upward (improving status) or downward (declining status), and can occur within a single generation (intragenerational) or across multiple generations (intergenerational).
• Key factors influencing social mobility often include access to quality education, economic opportunities, and supportive public policies.
• Understanding social mobility is crucial for assessing societal fairness, opportunity, and the impact of economic policies on different segments of the population.
• While often associated with financial success, social mobility encompasses changes in occupation, social class, and overall quality of life.

Interpreting Social Mobility

Interpreting social mobility involves analyzing patterns of movement within a society's stratification system. This analysis often distinguishes between:

• Intergenerational mobility: The change in socioeconomic status between parents and their children. For instance, a child of a factory worker becoming a doctor demonstrates upward intergenerational mobility.²⁸
• Intragenerational mobility: The change in an individual's socioeconomic status over the course of their own lifetime. An example would be someone starting their career as an entry-level employee and rising to a senior management position.²⁷

Researchers use various metrics, often relying on changes in occupation, income, or wealth to measure this movement. A society with high social mobility is often seen as providing greater economic opportunity and being more meritocratic, where an individual's success is determined by their abilities and efforts rather than their birth circumstances. However, factors like access to human capital development, such as quality education and workforce preparation, play a crucial role in enabling economic mobility, particularly for lower-income individuals.²⁶

Hypothetical Example

Consider two families, the Smiths and the Johnsons, over two generations.

Generation 1:

• The Smiths: Mr. and Mrs. Smith work in manufacturing jobs with modest incomes. Their combined annual income places them in the lower-middle income bracket. They live in an affordable but less affluent neighborhood.
• The Johnsons: Mr. and Mrs. Johnson are both professionals, with significantly higher combined annual incomes, placing them in the upper-middle wealth bracket. They reside in a well-resourced area with access to top-tier schools.

Generation 2 (Children's Generation):

• Sarah Smith: Benefiting from an accessible state university and financial aid, Sarah obtains a degree in computer science. She secures a well-paying job at a technology firm, eventually becoming a project manager. Her income and professional status are significantly higher than her parents'. This represents upward intergenerational social mobility for Sarah.
• David Johnson: David attends a prestigious university, leveraging his family's financial resources and connections. He pursues a career in finance, starting at a high-level position. While his career path is successful, his relative social class and income bracket remain largely similar to his parents'. Though he experiences growth, his trajectory highlights the influence of initial advantages on sustained socioeconomic standing.

This example illustrates how social mobility can manifest differently across generations, even within the same economy.

Practical Applications

Social mobility is a critical concept in various real-world applications, particularly in public policy, economic growth, and labor market analysis. Governments and international organizations frequently study social mobility to understand and address issues of economic inequality and opportunity.

For instance, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) regularly publishes reports on social mobility across its member countries. The OECD's "A Broken Social Elevator?" report highlights that upward mobility for individuals with low-earning parents is often limited, and it can take multiple generations for children from the bottom income decile to reach the average income level in many OECD countries.²⁴, ²⁵ The report also points out that since the 1990s, the trend in social mobility has been negative in some regions, with "sticky floors" preventing upward movement for many and "sticky ceilings" leading to opportunity hoarding at the top.²¹, ²², ²³

Policymakers consider social mobility when designing initiatives related to education funding, vocational training, financial literacy programs, and tax structures aimed at fostering a more equitable distribution of opportunity. Measures to promote social mobility are often debated as a means to enhance economic dynamism and societal well-being.²⁰

Limitations and Criticisms

Despite its importance, the concept of social mobility faces several limitations and criticisms. One major critique is that a singular focus on "mobility" can sometimes obscure the underlying issue of economic inequality itself. Critics argue that even with high mobility, if the gap between the top and bottom of the social hierarchy remains vast, individuals moving up might still face significant challenges, and those "left behind" could experience greater isolation.¹⁸, ¹⁹ Some suggest that promoting social mobility can inadvertently reinforce existing hierarchies by emphasizing individual advancement within a competitive system, rather than challenging the system's inherent disparities.¹⁵, ¹⁶, ¹⁷

Another challenge lies in measurement. Accurately tracking social mobility requires extensive longitudinal data, following individuals and families over decades, which is costly and complex.¹³, ¹⁴ Different studies may use varying definitions of social class, income, or occupation, leading to varied results and interpretations.¹¹, ¹² Furthermore, factors such as cultural differences, regional variations, and the specific metrics chosen can influence the perceived extent of social mobility, making cross-country comparisons complex.⁹, ¹⁰

There is also a debate about whether social mobility, particularly upward mobility, is a truly achievable goal for all, especially given systemic barriers like discrimination and unequal access to resources, or if it risks promoting a meritocracy that fails to account for inherited advantages.⁷, ⁸

Social Mobility vs. Economic Inequality

While often discussed together, social mobility and economic inequality are distinct but related concepts.

Social mobility looks at the dynamism of a society, examining whether individuals can transcend their birth circumstances. Economic inequality, conversely, measures the static distribution of resources. A society could have high inequality but also high mobility (though this is rare), meaning many move up and down, or it could have low inequality but low mobility (e.g., a highly egalitarian but stagnant society). In reality, high and rising inequality often correlates with lower social mobility, suggesting that as gaps widen, it becomes harder for those at the bottom to ascend.⁵, ⁶

FAQs

What are the main types of social mobility?

The main types are vertical mobility (upward or downward movement in status) and horizontal mobility (changing positions without changing overall status, e.g., changing jobs but remaining in the same social class). Additionally, mobility can be intergenerational (between generations) or intragenerational (within a single lifetime).⁴

Does education guarantee upward social mobility?

Education is a significant factor contributing to upward social mobility, as it can enhance human capital, skills, and earning potential. However, it does not guarantee mobility. Other factors like family background, access to networks, economic conditions, and systemic barriers can also play a substantial role.

How is social mobility measured?

Social mobility is typically measured using statistical methods that compare an individual's or group's socioeconomic status (e.g., income, occupation, education) to that of their parents or to their own status at different points in time. Researchers often look at transitions between income quintiles or occupational categories to quantify mobility.³

Why is social mobility important for a society?

Social mobility is considered important because it reflects the fairness and dynamism of a society. High social mobility suggests that individuals have genuine opportunities to improve their lives regardless of their starting point, which can foster individual aspiration, reduce social tensions, and contribute to overall economic growth by ensuring talent is utilized effectively.²

What causes low social mobility?

Low social mobility can stem from various factors, including persistent poverty, unequal access to quality education and healthcare, limited labor market opportunities, systemic discrimination, and the accumulation of generational wealth advantages at the top, which can create "sticky floors" and "sticky ceilings."¹