What Are People's Communes?
People's communes were large-scale, all-encompassing administrative and economic units established in rural China during the Great Leap Forward from 1958 to 1983. Functioning as a form of highly centralized economic organization, these communes integrated agricultural, industrial, commercial, educational, and military affairs into a single unit, collectivizing nearly all aspects of rural life. The system aimed to accelerate economic development and facilitate China's transition to socialism by pooling labor and resources on an unprecedented scale. People's communes represented the highest of three administrative levels in rural areas, superseding smaller agricultural cooperatives and organizing households into production brigades and teams.
History and Origin
The concept of people's communes emerged in China in 1958, following earlier stages of rural collectivization that began after 1949. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), under Chairman Mao Zedong, launched the Great Leap Forward campaign with the ambitious goal of rapidly transforming China from an agrarian society into an industrialized nation. An experimental commune was established in Henan province in April 1958, where private plots were abolished, and communal kitchens were introduced. By the end of that year, approximately 25,000 people's communes had been established across China, each averaging 5,000 households. The rationale behind these large-scale organizations was primarily economic, intended to overcome the lack of industrialization in rural China by mobilizing peasant labor and centralizing control over agricultural production and other economic activities28. This top-down imposition sought to achieve rapid capital accumulation for industrial projects by controlling food production and procurement, laying a foundation for future economic growth.
Key Takeaways
- People's communes were large-scale, multi-purpose units in rural China from 1958 to 1983, integrating economic, social, and governmental functions.
- They were a core component of the Great Leap Forward, aiming for rapid industrialization and collectivization.
- The system led to severe disruptions in traditional farming, declining productivity, and contributed significantly to the Great Chinese Famine.
- Communes centralized resources and decision-making, often at the expense of individual incentives and local expertise.
- They were eventually dismantled starting in 1979, replaced by the household responsibility system that privatized farming.
Interpreting the People's Communes
Interpreting the legacy of people's communes requires understanding their dual nature as both a radical social experiment and a top-down economic policy. On one hand, advocates believed the communes would foster a more egalitarian society, enable large-scale infrastructure projects like irrigation, and streamline resource allocation for industrialization26, 27. The system aimed to break down traditional family structures and involve women more actively in communal labor, for instance, through communal dining halls and nurseries25.
However, the implementation of the people's communes also led to significant economic and social disruptions. The emphasis on ideological purity over practical expertise often resulted in mismanagement, and the rigid central planning and lack of individual incentives severely hampered agricultural output23, 24. The system's impact on China's rural economy and its population remains a subject of considerable historical and economic analysis.
Practical Applications
While people's communes were a specific historical phenomenon in China, their study offers insights into the challenges and consequences of large-scale collectivization and centrally planned economies. Economists and policymakers can analyze the people's communes to understand the importance of individual incentives and flexible economic structures. For instance, the commune system's failure to meet its production goals and its role in the Great Chinese Famine underscore the risks associated with the forced reallocation of labor and the suppression of private enterprise22.
The experience of the people's communes also highlights the role of institutional design in influencing productivity and welfare. The dismantling of the communes and the subsequent introduction of the household responsibility system in the early 1980s marked a significant shift towards more market-oriented agricultural practices, leading to substantial increases in agricultural output and farmer incomes20, 21. This historical transition provides a case study for understanding the effects of market reforms on a vast agrarian population.
Limitations and Criticisms
The people's communes faced severe limitations and drew significant criticism, primarily due to their catastrophic economic outcomes and human cost. A major critique centers on the egalitarian remuneration system within the communes, which created a tenuous link between effort and reward, leading to widespread "free-riding behavior" and a decline in individual productivity19. Peasants, deprived of their private plots and paid largely in kind rather than cash, lost the incentives to work harder18.
Furthermore, the zealous implementation of commune policies often involved the forced melting of farming tools for backyard steel production and the slaughter of farm animals, further disrupting agriculture17. This mismanagement, combined with ambitious and often unrealistic production quotas, severely impacted China's agricultural production. The most devastating consequence was the Great Chinese Famine (1959–1961), during which an estimated 15 to 55 million people died of starvation. This period is widely regarded as one of the deadliest man-made disasters in human history, directly linked to the policies of the Great Leap Forward and the people's communes.
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Even after the initial period of the Great Leap Forward, the communes continued to face challenges. While some scholars argue that reforms in the 1960s and 1970s improved their capital accumulation capabilities and invested in agricultural modernization, the overall system was ultimately deemed inefficient. 15The forced collectivization in an intensively farmed country like China proved less suitable than in regions with extensive agriculture, contributing to persistent economic difficulties.
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People's Communes vs. Collective Farming
While "people's communes" are a specific historical form of collective farming, the terms are not interchangeable. Collective farming is a broader concept referring to various agricultural production systems where multiple farmers run their holdings as a joint enterprise. This can include agricultural cooperatives, where members jointly engage in farming, or state farms, which are directly run by a centralized government.
People's communes, however, distinguished themselves by their comprehensive scope. Unlike earlier collective farms (agricultural producers' cooperatives) that primarily focused on agriculture, people's communes were multi-purpose organizations that integrated all aspects of local government and economic and social activity, including industry, education, commerce, and even military affairs. 12, 13They involved a far higher degree of collectivization, with private plots and private markets often entirely abolished and communal living arrangements enforced. 10, 11The defining characteristic of people's communes was their ambition to become the basic social unit of a future communist society, encompassing almost all aspects of an individual's life, well beyond mere agricultural cooperation.
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FAQs
When were people's communes established and abolished?
People's communes were established in rural China in 1958 as part of the Great Leap Forward and were gradually dismantled starting in 1979, with their functions largely replaced by the household responsibility system by 1983.
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What was the main purpose of people's communes?
The main purpose was to accelerate China's economic development and transition to socialism by massively collectivizing agriculture and integrating all rural activities under centralized control, aiming to increase agricultural production and facilitate industrialization.
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Did people's communes improve living standards?
Initially, the people's communes aimed to improve living standards by providing communal services. However, due to mismanagement, lack of incentives, and the devastating Great Chinese Famine, living standards for many peasants deteriorated significantly during their peak period. 4After their dismantling, the subsequent market reforms generally led to an increase in farmer's disposable income.
How did people's communes affect agricultural output?
Despite their goal of increasing output, people's communes generally led to a significant decline in agricultural output due to poor management, diversion of labor to industrial projects (like backyard steel furnaces), and a lack of individual farming incentives. This decline was a major contributing factor to the Great Chinese Famine.
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What replaced the people's communes?
The people's communes were replaced by the household responsibility system, which decollectivized land use and allowed individual households to contract land from the collective. This system re-established a link between a farmer's effort and their reward, leading to greater autonomy and generally improved agricultural productivity.1